Edugeeks Alert Blog

• News About Docsy
• TSPSC Group-2 notification released
• TSPSC Group 4 notification
• History Notes for competitive Govt Exams
• the dawn of Local Indian Content creators and Cultural Exploration
• Rise of the Mauryans and their Historical Sources
• Rise of Magadha empire and the 16 Mahajanapadas
• what is Urbanization and rurbanization.
• Geographical Data of India for Govt exams
• Indian Constitution's Historical Evolution
• Important Articles in Indian Polity
• Indian Economy - an Introduction
• Rise of Ashoka and study of Mauryan Empire
• Post Mauryans and Kingdoms and the age of Sangam
• Trade and commerce after the mauryan Empire
• Important events after the Death the Buddha
• The Dynamic Evolution of Language: Unraveling the Rate of Word Increase
• Astronomers Discover Most Luminous Black Hole Ever
• Gravitational Lensing: Unveiling the Mysteries of Space
• Quasars
• Unraveling the Quantum Gravity Mystery: A Breakthrough in Microscopic Gravity Measurement
• Exam Demo3!

News About Docsy

TSPSC Group-2 notification released

The Telangana State Public Service Commission conducts the TSPSC Group 2 exam for Group 2 services. TSPSC Group 2 Notification 2022:. A notice for the recruitment of 783 vacancies of Group 2 services for various posts, including Assistant Labor Officer, ACTO (Assistant Commercial Tax Officer), Sub-Registrar Grade-II, Extension Officer, Municipal Commissioner Gr-III, Prohibition and Excise Sub Inspector, etc., was published by the Telangana State Public Service Commission on December 29, 2022. **The online registration process will start on January 18, 2023, and run through February 16, 2023. ** Additional official information, including official notifications, exam schedules, and eligibility requirements, will be made available on the official website, www. https://www. “tspsc . gov . in.”. Visit the website linked below to read the entire article for more details on the TSPSC Group 2 Exam.

TSPSC Notification for Group 2 in 2022.

The TNPSC Group 2 Vacancy 2022 Short Notice has been published by the Telangana State Public Service Commission on December 29, 2022. According to the notice, the Telangana government gave permission to fill 783 openings in various categories under Group-II services. Soon, a detailed version of the TSPSC Group 2 Notification 2022 will be posted on the site. shortly after being announced, visit tspsc . gov . in/.

Overview of TSPSC Group 2 Notification 2022.

Candidates will be chosen by the Telangana State Public Service Commission through preliminary, main, and interview rounds for the TSPSC Group 2 position. Information is provided in the table below. The details given are taken from the official notification from the previous year, and you can stay informed on this page.

2022 TSPSC Group 2 Vacancy.

Through an official notice that has been made available by the authorities, the Telangana State Public Service Commission will announce that there are 783 vacancies for various Group 2 Posts. Soon, this page will host the post-by-post breakdown of open positions for the TSPSC Group 2 Recruitment 2022.

Application form for Group 2 of the TSPSC.

The only accepted method for submitting the TSPSC Group 2 application form for 2022 is online; all other methods of submission will not be accepted. **The TSPSC Group 2 Recruitment 2022 online application period will open on January 18 and close on February 16 of 2023. To make it easier for candidates to apply directly online for the TSPSC Group 2 Recruitment, we will also provide a direct link here. When the online application period for TSPSC Group 2 2022 opens, the TSPSC Group 2 apply link will be live.

Application Fee for Group 2 of TSPSC.

Candidates must pay the application fee when submitting their online applications for the TSPSC Group 2 Recruitment in 2022. Only online submissions of the TSPSC Group 2 Application Fee will be accepted. The TSPSC Group 2 application fee varies depending on the candidate categories, which are listed below.

PH, SC, ST, OBC, ex-servicemen and ex-servicewomen, and other categories. - RS 150/-.

How to Apply Online for TSPSC Group 2 Recruitment in 2022.

To apply online for the TSPSC Group 2 Recruitment 2022, candidates can either follow the instructions below or click on the link provided above in the article.

1. Check out the official website, i. e. @tspsc . gov . in.
2. For candidates who are applying for the TSPSC exams for the first time, click the One Time Registration tab now.
3. Complete all the required fields and include a scanned copy of your ID and your signature.
4. A registration number and password will be generated after selecting the submit tab.
5. Once more, visit the TSPSC website.
6. Click the “Apply Online” link under the TSPSC Group 2 2022 advertisement.
7. Use the login information you were given when registering to access a new login window.
8. Now complete the TSPSC Group 2 online application form.
9. As soon as you’ve paid the application fee, click the submit button.
10. Take a printout of the application for your records.

Eligibility requirements for TSPSC Group 2.

Based on their educational background, citizenship, and age restriction, applicants for TSPSC Group 2 Recruitment 2022 must meet the following requirements. Candidates who meet the requirements listed below may submit the form.

1. The applicant must be an Indian national.
2. He or she must be proficient in the state’s regional language.
3. The applicant must have earned a degree in any discipline from an accredited university or college with all required documentation in hand and a grade point average of at least 50%.

Group 2 Payscale for TSPSC in 2022.

After passing all of the stages of the TPSPC Group Recruitment Process, candidates who are chosen will be given seats in the cadre. The chosen candidates will receive a monthly salary pay band starting at **Rs. 29,760 to 80,930 Rsdot. **.

Q1. How many positions are open in TSPSC Groups-2. Ans. For the fiscal year 2022–2023, TSPSC has announced there will be 783 Group 2 openings.

TSPSC Group 4 notification

Notification of TSPSC Group 4 2022:

Government of Telangana has announced more than 11,000 vacancies to be filled for TSPSC services for fiscal year 2022-23, of which 9,168 vacancies are notified for TSPSC Group 4 services.

Telangana State Telangana State is the body established under the Constitution of India to select qualified candidates for various civil service jobs in the Indian state of Telangana.

The online registration process for the TSPSC Group 4 Exam 2022 will begin with the official announcement. The selection of qualified candidates for TSPSC Group C services will be through a computerized test and a series of interviews conducted by the TSPSC.

Notification of TSPSC Group 4 in 2022

On November 25, 2022, Telangana Govt. announced the recruitment of TSPSC Groups 2, 3 and 4 in 2022. According to the announcement, TSPSC Group 4 announcements could be announced at any time in the coming days. The Telangana Public Service Commission will publish the TSPSC Group 4 Notice 2022 pdf on the Commission’s official website at https: //tspsc.gov.in/ in December 2022.

TSPSC’s Group 4 Assessment Notice will have full details on the recruitment process including eligibility criteria, application process, process options, salary, exam format and other information. Bookmark this page if you are waiting for the TSPSC Group 4 announcement and continue to visit us for all the latest updates. TSPSC Group 4 Recruitment 2022- Overview

Although the TSPSC Group 4 2022 announcement has not been published yet, interested candidates can know the summary of the TSPSC Group 4 2022 exam as shown in the table below.

TSPSC Group 4 Exam Dates 2022

Exam date and online registration date for TSPSC Group 4 Exam 2022 will be announced by Telangana State Public Service Commission (TSPSC) with announcement in December 2022. TSPSC Group 4 Exam 2022 will be held updated here as soon as officials announced the date on the official website.

TSPSC Group 4 Vacancies 2022

A total of 9168 vacancies have been announced by Telangana State Civil Service Commission for TNPSC Group 4 services. However, the number of vacancies will be temporary. We will update you with details of vacancies by category once detailed notice is released. The positions where the TSPSC Group 4 exam must be taken are:

Lower Assistant (Panchayati Raj), Assistant Assistant (Commercial Tax Department), junior accountant, Junior Steno (Department of Revenue), Typist (Revenue), Junior Assistant (Revenue Department), Typist (Panchhayati Raj), Assistant Assistant (Ministry of the Interior), Junior Steno (Department of Internal Affairs), Typist (Ministry of Interior), Junior Assistant (I&CAD), Junior Stenon (I&CAD), Typist (Fire and Disaster Response Service), Junior Steno (Fire and Disaster Response Service), Subordinate Assistant (Telangana Vaidya Vidhana Parishad), Junior Assistant (Director of Medical Education), Subordinate Assistant (Forestry Department)

TSPSC Group 4 Online Application Link

Candidates who meet the eligibility requirements for the TSPSC Group 4 Exam must apply online, and the direct link will be updated below. The TSPSC Group 4 Online Registration Form will be available at https://tspsc.gov.in/, and no other applications will be accepted. The dates for TSPSC Group 4 Registration will be announced when the detailed notification is released.

Application Fee for TSPSC Group 4

The application fees from the previous year’s notifications are listed below. The TSPSC Group 4 Application Fee must be paid online only via credit card, net banking, or debit card.

Filling Out the TSPSC Group 4 Application Form Step 1: Go to the Telangana Public Service Commission’s official website at https://tspsc.gov.in/.

Step 2: On the homepage, click the “One-Time Registration” tab.

Step 3: Enter your Aadhar number, basic information, educational qualification, and any other information requested in the application form.

Step 4: Candidates must verify the information retrieved from various databases (qualification, caste, Aadhar, etc.) and displayed on the screen.

Step 5. Preview the application form by clicking on the declaration.

Step 6: If the information on the screen for the TSPSC Group 4 Application Form is correct, click “Submit.”

Step 7: Pay the necessary application fee online.

Step 8: Following payment of the fee, the TSPSC Group-4 application form 2022 will be generated, which will include the candidate’s specific information.

Step 9: Archive the TSPSC Group 4 Notification for future use.

Eligibility Criteria for TSPSC Group 4

Candidates who meet the eligibility criteria can only take the TSPSC Group 4 exam and get a job in TSPSC Group 4 Services. The following are the TSPSC Group 4 Eligibility details from the previous year’s notification. -

TSPSC Nationality Group 4

The candidate must be of Indian origin. The candidate must be a resident of Telangana and meet the requirements for Local / Non-Local status. TSPSC Education Qualification Group 4 A Bachelor’s Degree or its equivalent from any recognised university or institution in India is required.

Typist- Applicants for Typist positions must have passed the Government Technical Examination in Type Writing with a Higher Grade in the relevant language.

LD/Junior Steno: The applicant must have passed the Government Technical Examination in Type Writing with a Higher Grade in the relevant language.

Selection Procedure for TSPSC Group 4 2022 The Telangana State Public Service Commission will select candidates in two stages using the TSPSC Group IV Selection Process. To be considered for the position, candidates must pass each stage. The following are the stages for TSPSC Group 4 Recruitment 2022:

Stage 1: Computer-Based Exam (CBT)

Stage 2 Skill Analysis

Candidates planning to take the upcoming TSPSC Group 4 Exam 2022 must be familiar with the TSPSC Group 4 syllabus for both Papers I and II. For your convenience, we have covered all of the topics covered in the TSPSC Group 4 Syllabus for Paper I (General Knowledge) and Paper II (Secretarial Abilities) by clicking the link below.

TSPSC Group 4 Salary 2022

The TSPSC pays handsome and lucrative salaries to employees selected for TSPSC Group 4 positions. Employees selected for Group 4 posts in Telangana are paid at a pay scale of Rs. 16,400 - Rs. 49,870/- per month, with certain allowances as per state government norms, according to the previous recruitment notification.

History Notes for competitive Govt Exams

History Notes for competitive Govt Exams

the dawn of Local Indian Content creators and Cultural Exploration

India was home to a wide range of cultures. Many cultures and traditions were destroyed in the past centuries. But this trend didn’t stop even after India became independent. Many many reasons for Indians to forget their cultures and customs and adopt new popular customs and some of them were necessary. Today Indian people are quite different from their ancestors a century ago, and the culture has changed significantly.

Thanks to the internet, there is a new possibility to enhance the contemporary cultures in every corner of India. Today many YouTubers are utilising the internet as a medium for a source of income in rural-urban and Cosmopolitan areas. Interesting progress is happening in the rural and urban areas.

In India, there is a wide range of diversity; every 10 kilometres, there would be changes in words of the same language and slight differences in food and customs. 100 km distance, a different accent of the same language with many alternative words for the same things to represent, and food culture would be noticeably different. At a distance of 500 km, there is a high possibility that you would encounter an entire change in food customs, culture, dressing style, and language. This is not something stupid you have done; it is natural for people to tend to make their customs and culture as time passes and develop new traditions.

Nowadays, the young YouTubers in every corner of the nation create content focusing on the views of that region, mainly focusing on that culture. There is a film industry in every language today in India, but the problem is these film industries are located in the capital cities of the states, and most of the content is related to that city or Indians in foreign cities.

The audience can engage with these YouTubers because they use the jokes, the language of that region, and culture also plays a role. While the film industries represent the popular culture of that language belt, although it has responsibility for representing the language belt, in most cases, it represents the cultures of a single City. In minor situations, it returns to the culture of the belt other than the central city.

While these big film industries have developed through decades, the young YouTubers concentrated in the rural areas and every corner of the nation lack art-making skills, budget and encouragement. There will be more good content if we encourage them and support them with the proper art-making education in all parts of India. It is not a new thing in India. Before the age of film industries and TV entertainment, people’s entertainment was theatres, dance forms, kacheries etc. They used to entertain the public, and also, they used to be the source of income for many artists in all locations. If we encourage these YouTubers and local online content creators, they would act like revivals of the old customs or encourage creating new meaningful traditions in their own culture.

**

Advantages

** The advantages of happening this change would be as follows:

• A large scale of employment opportunities would be created. In the film industries, a small group of people would be able to create content for crores of people. This resulted in only small dozens of leading content creators dominating the industry, creating many problems. But two issues are more crucial in our interest in this article.

• One is a minimal workforce for producing content for a large population. And second is the concentration of employment in a single place, which centralises employment in big cities instead of diversifying.

• So this new generation might create significant employment opportunities for many people in their local areas like artists(actors, singers, musicians, and other technical staff), art schools, and entertainment events. Srikanth Sriram, a YouTuber who started a channel called My Village Show in 2012, said that he began the channel mainly to create employment in his village. The channel gained a large audience, and due to that, many actors were introduced into the Telugu film industry, and one of them was an older woman of age above 60 who gained a large fan base.

• More and more engaging, this system would connect to the people they want to watch in the movies. For example, the culture of Srikakulam, a district of Andhra Pradesh, didn’t have the minimum importance in the Telugu film industry. While people of Srikakulam proudly say that they are Telugu speaking people whose accent is unique and beautiful. They would love to watch content in their accent, and they would like to watch content based on the lifestyle of people living there.

• Being diverse will create more options, and traditional filmmaking would create little possibilities where more and more people should concentrate on fewer and fewer art forms present there. If diversity is encouraged, people would have a chance to focus on an extensive range of opportunities.

• Art is the best way to address some problems which people are facing. It could represent the problems of that area which the regular film industries couldn’t show. Srikakulam suffered from kidney diseases, and people were dying in large numbers.

The Telugu film industry could have made a movie on that, but they didn’t. May Because of lack of information or it possibly couldn’t be a potential income generator or because of the lack of technicians who could do it. But the people of Srikakulam, if they could do a short movie on it, they could have done it. Even poverty in detail in Bihar and Uttar Pradesh can be shown by local artists way better than film industries. Tetseo sisters (they are not the internet generation, but they could be an inspiration) represented Nagaland culture on many occasions in national and international fests, primarily represented their naga culture and addressed some social issues.

• They would encourage traditional cultures, songs, and literature, as the traditional dance and music forms engage them. Not only that, if given a chance, they could even develop more and more engaging, just like the western art industries have developed.

Rise of the Mauryans and their Historical Sources

Rise of the Mauryans and their Sources

4th century English writers like Justin, Strabo, Plutarch, and Arien Wrote about Military strength of the Mauryan Empire. It is stated that Mauryans had 1 lacks plus infantry, 9000 elephantry, 6000 cavalry, 8000 chariotry.

Parisistaparvan(12th cent AD) wrote about famine in Magadha and Sallekhana practices

Buddhist sources have been found from ceylon(Srilanka)

Lama Taranatha wrote history of Tibet(Buddhsist sources)

Megasthenes wrote Indica and added some controversial statements like

• He said there was no slavary in India

• There are no famines in India

• There are seven castes in India

• He saw some people who had 3 eyes(might have confused with tilak of Veerashaivaites) on the banks of Yamuna River

Epigraphy in India

First inscriptions in India(record writings on stones)- Ashoka

Ashokas inscriptions are called as EDICTS

He issued 3 types of edicts

1. Rock Edicts (Major roks +Minor Rocks)

2. Pillar Edicts

3. Cave Edicts

Ashoka used the Prakruth Language (Jains used Prakruth while Pali was spoken by Buddhist) in the edicts while script written was Brahmi

Only in 2 places Ashoka used Greek and Aramic language and used Kharosthi script in north west India (Mansehra and Shahbaz Giri today Pakistan)

Brahmi script goes from Left to Right while in Kharosthi it goes from Right to Left

Important

In 1837 British Civil servant named James Prinsep finally decoded the 2500 year old Brahmi script and finally came to know about Ashoka Inscription and his Legacy

Themes in inscription

• Ashoka as a king

• Ashoka as a Buddhist

In all the inscriptions Ashoka’s title is found but not the name of the Ashoka (Devanampiya and Piyadasi)

Only in four inscriptions ashoka’s name is found in ( Maski, Nittur ,Gujjar and piklihal/Brahmagiri) inscriptions

Major Rocks Edicts

13th MRE says the Ashoka realized after the Kalinga War and started practicing Dhamma

After killing 1 lakh people ,A five year old boy (Nigrotha) a Buddhist Monk came to Ashoka and insulted Ashoka and after that he realized and stated non violence and also stopped vihara yatra and no more Bherigosha(dance before war)

Dhamman sharanam gachhami and Buddham sharanam Gachhami and sangham saranam Gacchami found in Babbu minor rock(Bengal) Edict

HG Wells, he says that Ashoka is a moon in the Galaxy of stars

Pillar Edicts

1. Ramapurva pillar Bihar

2. Rummindei pillar Nepal(info about Taxes)

3. Saranath pillar UP

4. Lauriya Nandangarh Pillar Bihar

Note : on every pillar there’s a carving of animal on pillar depicting the symbol of capital cities for example on Sarnath pillar we find 4 roaring lions

Cave edicts

Ashoka issued 4 caves at BARABAR (Bihar) and gifted it to Ajivikas as a token of Secularism

Ashoka’s grandson Dasharath also donated 4 caves to Ajivikas at Nagarjuni (Bihar)

Numismatic Sources

Mouryans minted pure silver coins called karshapanas and also minted gold coins called Tola but they were not pure gold coins and historians rejected it.

Financial year started in Ashada Month.

Symbols on the coins were Peacock, Hills, Tree, Birds etc

Rulers of Mouryan empire

1. Chandragupta Mourya (321-297 BC)

2. Bindusara ( 298-272 BC)

3. Ashoka (268-232 BC)

Chandra Gupta Mourya (CGM)

Puranas says that he is a shudra as he did not adopted Brahmanism(just a theory), and Jains texts say that he is kshatriya because he adopted Jainism(another theory), there is no clarity on the birth of Chandra Gupta Mourya, some texts says that insulted by Nandas , Chanakya made an oath that he will raise a shudra and make him rule the entire India and he will be the reason for the downfall of mighty Nandas who were also shudras.

And buddhist never spoke about him as ne never patronized the Buddhist

• His Prime minister was Koutilya, they were a Deadly combination in the indian history

• He fought with Greeks (Selecus Niktater) and defeated him and married his Daughter Helena and received Sindh, Balochistan and Kabul in return CGM gave 500 elephants

• He was called Sandra Cotus by greeks

• Selucus Niktator sent megasthenes was ambassador to Pataliputra

• First highway constructed by CGM (Pataliputra to Taxila GT Road), Ujjain to kanyakumari(incomplete)

• CGM captured saurashtra

• His governor Pushya Gupta he built Sudarshana Lake in Gujarat

• His state was first welfare state and first paternal state

• Bhadrabahu made him convert to Jainism in his last year and settled at Shravanabelagola

• He gave his throne to his son Bindusara , attained Sallekhana and died on Chandragiri mountains

Bindusara

• He has black spots on his body

• He has the title Amitraghata (slayer of Enemies) Greeks used to call him Amitracates

• He is known as a heavy Drinker(other Drunkard emperor was saleem-Jahangir) and enjoyed his life to the fullest and known to have 100 sons and eldest son was Sushima and third son was Ashoka(Governor of Ujjain)

• Chanakya made sure that whoever become the governor of Taxila, will be the next King, so Ashoka made numerous plots to become the governor of Taxila and finally after killing all his brothers except one brother Thisya he became the King

• He sent two Greek ambassadors Deimachus and Dionysius to bring Wine, figgs, and philosophers for entertainment but greek philosophers were not interested to share knowledge with him so they didn’t came

• He adopted Ajivika Religion

About Ashoka , we will publish about him in a separate article.

Rise of Magadha empire and the 16 Mahajanapadas

Rise of Magadha and Mahajanapadas

Magadha was a region and one of the sixteen Mahajanapadas, ‘Great Kingdoms’ of the Second Urbanization in what is now south Bihar at the eastern Ganges Plain. Magadha was ruled by the Brihadratha dynasty, Pradyota dynasty, Haryanka dynasty, and the Shishunaga dynasty.

• Out of 16 big kingdom’s biggest kingdom was Magadha

• The Source of these kingdoms was written in Buddhist Pali texts called Angutarranikaya

16 Mahajanapadas

Note: there is no state until Magadha emerged as it follows the koutilya’s definition of state called Saptangas

Features of Saptangas (very important)

1. Amatyas(Ministers)

2. Friends (ally kingdoms)

3. Swamy(Ruler)

4. Dauthya (diplomats)

5. Danda (Judiciary)

6. Jana (people , considerable population)

7. Durga( Fortified Capital)

Why Magadha is Powerful?

1. First advantageous is Geographical advantage, full of Resources like Iron mines and fortified Capitals, had full of Forests covers

• Major advantage is Elephants and Timber(weapons) from Forests Reserves

• Some weapons names Rathamusala and Mahasilakantaka(both were shown in the Bahubali movie were originally used in Magadha empire

2. Magadha served by great Intellectuals like Jeevaka (first Doctor in India), Koutilya also called as Chanakya also known as vishnugupta who wrote the Greatest masterpiece treatise on statecraft, political science, economic policy and military strategy called Arthashastra

Another intellectual is Rakshasa(greatest diplomat)

Pingalaka (spy)

Assakara (senapati of Ajatashatru)

3. All Magadha Rulers are monarchs, so there is continuity of policies

Why couldn’t Magadha capture Gandhara and Kamboja?

• One of many reasons was Geographical distance and Iran (Persian kingdoms at that time were very powerful under Darius-1)

• Later Greece invaded and the Kingdom of Ambi(first Drhohi of India) invited Alexander to join his hands and defeat his local enemy.

• 326 BC battle of hydaspes on the banks of Jhelum Porus defeated Alexander(Indian Version, Greeks version is opposite), overall battle was neutral

Alexander defeated small indian kingdoms upto Ravi river and stayed there for 18 months but didn’t enter India because he Feared Ruler of Magadha Dhanananda as he was having 6000 Mighty elephants and 9000 infantry(horses) and 100,000 + soldiers

But the Greek’s answer is different, as Herodotus said that Greek soldiers were exhausted and felt homesick.

Rulers of Magadha

It is stated that Magadha has 3 powerful dynasties

Haryanka dynasty

1. Bimbisara

• Bimbisara followed Matrimonial policy to expand the Kingdom, he married Kosala Devi (sister of Prasenjit, Kashi Ruler), as he got Kashi as Dowry

• He followed diplomacy, sent Jeevaka to Avanthi and cured the Ruler and Avanthi became a subordinate Kingdom(Samantha rajyam)

2. Ajatashatru

• He killed his father Bimbisara and repented later (touched Buddha’s feet, Bharhut stupa)

• Through wars he conquered Avanthi, Vajji, Malla, and Vatsa

3. Udayana

• He shifted capital to Pataliputra

2nd dynasty- Shishunaga dynasty

1. 1st ruler Shishunaga

2. 2nd ruler Kalashoka

3rd dynasty - Nandas(Powerful)

• Mahapadma Nanda(father)(shudras) later practiced jainism

• Dhananada(son)

• They captured the rest of Mahajanapadas

what is Urbanization and rurbanization.

what is Urbanization?

Increase in the proportion of people living in the cities and towns

what is Rurbanization?

• Forming cluster of smart villages

• To provide urban amenities in rural areas

• To reverse/reduce Migration flow

Concept and Terminologies:

• Urban areas recognised as Engines of Inclusive Economic Growth

• Out of 121 crores Indians, 83.3 crore people live in rural areas and 37.7 crores live in Urban areas i.e 32% of total population.

Some criterias for urban

• Minimum population: 5000 persons

• 75% male working population should not do agriculture

• Density of 400person per sqkm

Statutory Towns other category(first unit)

Ex: GHMC , Vadodara municipal corporation, shimla(MC)

Urban areas in 100000 people are called towns

URBAN AGGLOMERATION(UA):

CITIES+ STATUTORY TOWNS WITH NOT LESS THAN 20000 PEOPLE

Geographical Data of India for Govt exams

Geography details of INDIA

1. India is situated between the latitudes 8° 4’ to 37° 6’ North & 68° 7’ to 97° 25’ East longitudes.

2. Total area of India is 32,87,263 square kilometres.

3. Distance from north to south east 3214 km and east to west is 2933 km.

4. Land frontier ( settlement land)= 15200 square km

5. Coastline is 7517 km

6. India shares its land border with Pakistan, China, Nepal, Bhutan, Myanmar and Bangladesh. It shares Maritime water with Pakistan, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka. And also shares Maritime borders with Thailand, Myanmar and Indonesia through Andaman and Nicobar Islands

7. Laccadive sea is present around Lakshadweep Islands, around Sri Lanka, around Maldives and south west of Karnataka, west of Kerala and south of Tamilnadu.

8. Palk Strait and gulf of mannar separate Sri Lanka from India.

9. Andaman and Nicobar islands are about 1200 km from the mainland.

10. Southernmost tip of mainland India is Kanyakumari while southernmost in India is Indira point in greater Nicobar.

11. Northernmost point which is under Indian administration is Indira colony, Siachen glacier.

12. Territorial waterproof India extend into the sea to a distance of 22.2 km from coast baseline.

13. Chin hills, kachin hills , deeply forested mountain regions are present in the far Northeast separating India from Burma.

14. Kanchanjanga on the border between Nepal and Indian state Sikkim is the third highest peak in the world and highest peak in India with the height of 8598 m from sea level. 15) Climate across India ranges from equatorial in the far South to alpines and tundra in the upper recess of Himalayas.

Indian Constitution's Historical Evolution

Indian Constitution’s Historical Evolution

The British government can be roughly divided into two phases, namely

1. The Company’s Governance (1773-1857)
2. The Crown Administration (1858-1947)

The Company Administration

Regulating Act - 1773

(1) Bengal was given the title of “GOVERNOR-GENERAL,” and the post of “GOVERNOR”

Warren Hastings was the first governor general of the first province. He was

assisted by a four-member executive council.

(2) With one chief justice and three other justices, the Supreme Court of Calcutta was constituted.

extra judges The Chief Justice was Sir Elijah Impey.

Pitt’s India Act – 1784

(1) Established a new organisation called the “BOARD OF CONTROL” to oversee Indian politics.

However, COURT OF DIRECTORS continued to handle business matters.

(2) As a result, corporate assets were first referred to as “British possessions” in

India’s political wing and court of directors led the commercial wing.

the control board is in charge.

(3) William Pitt, the British Prime Minister at the time, proposed the Act.

Charter Act – 1813:

(1) removed the British East India Company’s monopoly over commercial rights; and allowed additional businesses to engage in trade with India.

1833 Charter Act

(1) In its place, the position of “GOVERNOR GENERAL OF INDIA” was established.

Bengal’s governor general. Madras and Bombay’s presidencies were taken.

their separate legislative authority, and were placed under the

administration in Calcutta. The first Governor-General of India was William Bentick.

(2) With this action, the company’s business operations came to an end. The business

existed, but it turned into a strictly political and administrative institution.

1853 Charter Act

(1) Created a separate Council of Legislators for the Governor General.

(2) A system of open competition for hiring Indians into the civil service was introduced. Macaulay

1854 saw the formation of a committee for this reason. Initially, Satyendra Nath Tagore

Indian in 1863 to be eligible for that service.

(3) NOTE - Lord Charles Cornwallis is considered the “Father of Civil Services” in India because of his

initiatives to update India’s civil services.

The Crown Administration

1858 Government of India Act

(1) Also known as the Indian Act for Good Government.

(2) Declare the British East India Company to be inactive. eliminated the Mughal government as

well.

(3) Established the position of Viceroy in place of the Governor General. Lord

Canning was appointed as India’s first Viceroy.

(4) A 15-member council and a new office, the Secretary of State for India, were also established.

help him. He was a representative in the British parliament.

1861 Indian Councils Act

The viceroy’s executive council was (1) enlarged. made arrangements for him to propose

a few unofficial Indian members. The Raja of Benaras was proposed by Lord Canning,

the Patiala Maharaja together with Sir Dinkar Rao.

(2) New Legislative Councils for North Western Frontier Province (1862) and Bengal (1866)

Founded in 1897 were and Punjab.

1892 Indian Councils Act

(1) The legislative council in India at the time had the authority to discuss the budget.

(2) The councils were enlarged, and some of its members were eligible for nomination to Central as

provincial legislative councils, as well.

1909 Indian Councils Act

(1) Also referred to as the Morley-Minto reforms.

(2) The Central Legislative Council’s membership was raised from 16 to

(3) The first Indian to be nominated for a law member was Satyendra Prasad Sinha.

to the Executive Council of the Viceroy.

(4) It was introduced to have a collective electorate. Muslims received separate treatment.

representatives by representation. Minto is hence also known as “Father”

Government of India Act 1919, “of Communal Electorate”

(1) Also known as the Montague-Chelmsford reforms, they were implemented in 1921.

(2) They introduced central and provincial themes or lists where they may create laws.

in their individual listings. Further dividing provincial subjects into transferred and

reserved. Thus, this action brought about diarchy.

(3) Implemented direct elections and bicameralism.

1935 Government of India Act

(1) Made provisions for the formation of an All-India Federation with provincial and princely

units of states Princely states chose not to join the Federation, hence it never existed.

(2) eliminated provincial diarchy and replaced it with “provincial autonomy.”

However, it introduced diarchy in the centre, which never materialised.

(3) Established bicameralism in the provinces and expanded the use of distinct electorates.

classes that are also depressed.

(4) Established a federal court and RBI in the middle.

1947 Indian Independence Act

(1) The Mountbatten Plan, which was announced on June 3, 1947, was the division plan.

of the nation and Atlee’s declaration of independence (20 February 1947) to grant

the Country.

(2) abolished British control, established two separate Pakistani and Indian dominions, and

authorised the founding bodies of the two sovereign Nations to draught their

different constitutions.

(3) On July 18, 1947, the Indian Independence Act received royal approval.

Important Articles in Indian Polity

Most Important articles of Indian Constitution

1. Article No. 1:- Name and territory of the Union
2. Article No. 3:- Formation of new states and alteration of areas, boundaries or names of existing states
3. Article No. 13:- Laws inconsistent with or in derogation of the Fundamental Rights
4. Article No. 14:- Equality before the law
5. Article No. 16:- Equality of opportunity in matters of public employment
6. Article No. 17:- Abolition of untouchability
7. Article No. 19:- Protection of certain rights regarding freedom of speech, etc.
8. Article No. 21:- Protection of life and personal liberty
9. Article No. 21A:- Right to elementary education
10. Article No. 25:- Freedom of conscience and free profession, practice and propagation of religion
11. Article No. 30:- Right of minorities to establish and administer educational institutions
12. Article No. 31C:- Saving of laws giving effect to certain Directive Principles
13. Article No. 32:- Remedies for enforcement of Fundamental Rights including writs
14. Article No. 38:- State to secure a social order for the promotion of the welfare of the people15. Article No.40:- Organisation of village panchayats
15. Article No. 44:- Uniform Civil Code for the citizens
16. Article No. 45:- Provision for early childhood care and education to children below the age of 6 years.
17. Article No. 46:- Promotion of educational and economic interests of scheduled castes, scheduled tribes and other weaker sections
18. Article No. 50:- Separation of judiciary from the executive
19. Article No. 51:- Promotion of international peace and security
20. Article No. 51A:- Fundamental Duties
21. Article No. 72:- Powers of President to grant pardons, suspend, remit or commute sentences in certain cases
22. Article No. 74:- Council of Ministers to aid and advise the President
23. Article No. 76:- Attorney-General of India
24. Article No. 78:- Duties of the Prime Minister as respects the furnishing of information to the President, etc.
25. Article No. 110:- Definition of Money Bills
26. Article No. 112:- Annual Financial Statement (Budget)
27. Article No. 123:- Power of President to promulgate ordinances during recess of Parliament
28. Article No. 143:- Power of President to consult Supreme Court
29. Article No. 148:- Comptroller and Auditor-General of India
30. Article No. 149:- Duties and powers of the Comptroller and Auditor-General of India32. Article No. 155:- Appointment of the Governor
31. Article No. 161:- Power of Governor to grant pardons, etc., and to suspend, remit or commute sentences in certain cases
32. Article No. 163:- Council of Ministers to aid and advise the Governor
33. Article No. 165:-Advocate-General of the state Which British Laws are still used in India
34. Article No. 167:- Duties of Chief Minister with regard to the furnishing of information to the Governor, etc.
35. Article No. 168:- Constitution of Legislatures in the states
36. Article No. 169:- Abolition or creation of Legislative Councils in the states
37. Article No. 170:- Composition of Legislative Assemblies in the states
38. Article No. 171:- Composition of Legislative Councils in the states
39. Article No. 172:- Duration of State Legislatures
40. Article No. 173:- Qualification for membership of the State Legislature
41. Article No. 174:- Sessions of the State Legislature, prorogation and dissolution
42. Article No. 178:- Speakers and Deputy Speaker of the Legislative Assembly
43. Article No. 194:- Powers, privileges, and immunity of Advocate-General
44. Article No. 200:- Assent to bills by the governor (including reservation for President)
45. Article No. 202:-Annual financial statement of the State Legislature
46. Article No. 210:- Language to be used in the State Legislature49. Article No. 212:- Courts not to inquire into proceedings of the State Legislature
47. Article No. 213:- Power of governor to promulgate ordinances during recess of the State Legislature
48. Article No. 214:- High courts for the states
49. Article No. 217:-Appointment and the conditions of the office of the judge of a High Court
50. Article No. 226:- Power of high courts to issue certain writs
51. Article No. 239AA:- Special provisions with respect to Delhi
52. Article No. 243B:- Constitution of Panchayats
53. Article No. 243C:- Composition of Panchayats
54. Article No. 243G:- Powers, authority and responsibilities of Panchayats
55. Article No. 243K:- Elections to the Panchayats
56. Article No. 249:-Power of Parliament to legislate with respect to a matter in the State List in the national interest
57. Article No. 262:- Adjudication of disputes relating to waters of inter-state rivers or river valleys
58. Article No. 263:- Provisions with respect to an inter-state council
59. Article No. 265:- Taxes not to be imposed save by authority of law
60. Article No. 275:- Grants from the Union to certain states
61. Article No. 280:- Finance Commission
62. Article No. 300:- Suits and proceedings66. Article No. 300A:- Persons not to be deprived of property save by authority of law (Right to property)
63. Article No. 311:- Dismissal, removal or reduction in rank of persons employed in civil capacities under the Union or a state.
64. Article No. 312:- All-India Services
65. Article No. 315:- Public Service Commission for the Union and for the states
66. Article No. 320:- Functions of Public Service Commissions
67. Article No. 323-A:- Administrative Tribunals
68. Article No. 324:- Superintendence, direction and control of elections to be vested in an Election Commission
69. Article No. 330:- Reservation of seats for scheduled castes and scheduled tribes in the House of the People
70. Article No. 335:- Claims of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes to services and posts
71. Article No. 352:- Proclamation of Emergency (National Emergency)
72. Article No. 356:- Provisions in case of failure of constitutional machinery in states (President’s Rule)
73. Article No. 360:- Provisions as to Financial Emergency.
74. Article No. 365:- Effect of failure to comply with or to give effect to, directions given by the Union (President’s Rule)
75. Article No. 368:- Power of Parliament to amend the Constitution and procedure therefor

Indian Economy - an Introduction

Indian Economy - an Introduction

Steps to follow for studying Economics for Upsc and other state Exams(groups)

1. Economic survey / BUDGET

2. Current Economic News

3. Economic schemes

4. Subject Thorough(multiple revisions)

5. Tests

6. Reference Books(Arihant economics)

First General Elections happened in 1952 in India(state and Center).

What is Economics?

Common Market = (Supply+Demand)

Economics is nothing but Management of Resources(anything that satisfies the need of Mankind).

Some examples of Resources

1. Food(energy)

2. Water(thirst)

3. Air(respiration)

4. Shelter(extreme climate)

5. Clothes(Moral and weather)

6. Minerals(Fuel)

7. Money(Artificial Resource all other are Natural Resources)

Management of Resources(both Natural and Artificial) by the Government in such a way that everyone( people in a state) should get food, shelter, water , transport , clothes etc is called Economics.

Study of resources is Economics, but combining it with an area(country or state) is called Economy.

Example: Indian Economy, Germany Economy, Economy of Greenland etc

Ragnar Frish coined the terms called Microeconomics and Macroeconomics.

Generally Economics is divided in two types

1. Micro Economics(small scale, individual firms and Markets, consumer Behavior etc)

2. Macro Economics(large scale, national income, unemployment, Inflation, GDP etc)

Rise of Ashoka and study of Mauryan Empire

Rise of Ashoka and Mauryans Administrations

Ashoka- (272-232 BC)

• He was lazy for the first 10 years and enjoyed luxury of his fathers and grandfathers inheritance of wealth

• 10th Regnal year- 262 BCE He waged war with Kalinga Desa (disputed with trade and commerce), Naga tribes of Kalinga desa looted the ships which were to arrive in the ports of Bengal

• After the war Ashoka met Mogali Puttatissa and he converted Ashoka to a Buddhist

• He immediately issued Bhabru Inscription

• He started a new policy(set of rules not religion) called Dhamma

• It is a responsibility for every citizen to work for the betterment of society, do more good than Evil ,

• He believed dhamma is a solution for all the problems of Heterogeneous Society irrespective of time and ages

Some rules of Dhamma:

• Be kind , Respect elders, respect slaves, with humanity and compassion

• Avoid Jealous, anger and Cruelty towards animals and Peoples

• Welfare policies(gold scheme), free gold will be distributed to the people who will take care of their parents

• Welfare measures(laid highways , laid canals and Trees(Ashoka Vana))

Almost all inscriptions talks about these Dhamma rules and Welfare Policies and measures

Ashoka appointed DhammaMahamataras (Illuminati people) to check whether people following the rules or skipping it and if anybody not following it , then they will be severely punished(Hypocrisy at its peak), at one end he talks about non violence and at other end he talks about punishment.

He used Buddhism to expand Dhamma and intern he made buddhism an International religion

Note : Late CM of Andhra Pradesh NTR appointed Mahamatras to check the corruption in his Cabinet

Symbol of dhamma is 24-spoked wheel

Later Mauryan

• Total 6 rulers after Ashoka , no one was powerful enough to rule the mighty empire of Maurya

• Samprithi grandson of Ashoka adopted Jainism

• Dasaratha- ajivika

• Brihadratha(last mauryan emperor)

Some Reason for the Downfall of Mauryan Empire

1. Ashoka gave Land grants to Buddhist, jains and Ajivikas, there are two types of Lands in mauryan empire, one is Family lands and other is Sita Lands (Crown owned estates), he only gave Sita Lands not the family lands

2. So the treasury started becoming empty and revenue for the King became negligible and later kings suffered heavily because of the donations of king Ashoka.

3. Finally Bruhadratha’s couldn’t even give salaries to the Senapati(Pushyamithra Sunga) and his soldiers, so Pushyamithra Assassinated Brihadratha during the God of Honour

4. Then started the Shunga dynasty

5. Some theories suggest that Because of Strict policies of Ashoka, many communities got halted of their work and Economy started falling down, for example Fisherman Community

Mauryan Administrations

• Complete Centralization

• No checks and Balances

• Absolute Despotism and Benevolent Despotism

• Extended Beauracrates(27 departments)

• Mauryans followed Paternal Kingship

Some Important officers

1. Amatyas(minister levels)- salaries 48000 panas (silver coins, source is Arthashastra)

2. Mantri (Less qualifies ministers) salary 12000 panas

3. Senapathi

27 Departments:

• Sannidhata- revenue minister

• Sangrahithri- Treasury minister

• Panya adakshya- trade and commerce

• Pautava adyaksha -weights and measures

• Lakshana adakysha- minting Department

• Nava adyaksha- ports

• Vivitha Adyaksha- pastures lands

• Sita adyaksha- Agricultural lands

• Loha Adyaksha- iron Mines

Mauryan Empire is divided into 4 provinces

1. Taxila (North west)

2. Ujjain(Middle)

3. Dhauli(East orissa)

4. Suvarnagiri (west KN)

3 important officers in Districts( Districts are called as Aharas)

• Pradeshika (Revenue Officer)

• Rajuka (Law and Order)

• Yuktha (Tax Collector, Land Revenue)

Lowest officer is Gramany(Head of the village)

Pliny is from Rome Italy, wrote a book called Natural History, latin language and wrote about the strength of mauryan military strength.

• He wrote about the war council of Mauryan and they held war meetings before the war and consisted of 6 boards and each board consisted of 5 members in to total 30 members in the war council

6 boards in Wars council are:

1. Infantry

2. Elephantry

3. Cavalry

4. Chariotry

5. Navy

6. Transportation

Indica says about the city Administration, it talks about Pataliputra, Ujjain, hastinapura, and taxila and others

Again there are 6 boards for administering the cities and again each board consists of 5 members each.

Boards for administering the cities:

1. Industry(regulate prices of goods)

2. Foreigners board(welfare of foreigners)

3. Statistics (to register Births and Deaths)

4. Trade boards (to look after guilds) very important for economic stability of a state and state never interfered the guilds

5. Manufactured articles(weights and measures)

6. Judiciary board(Dhanda) -to look after City and Law

Megasthenes describe two types of courts Dharmasya and Kantaka Shodhana (Civil and criminal courts)

• For thefts - 40 panas fine

• For cutting trees- Death Penalty

• For killing handicraft workers- capital punishments

Taxes in the Mauryan Administrations

• ⅙ th of the total produced for Farmers

• IMP Dasamoli Bhagha Tax- Govt will protect your crop and you will have to pay 1/10 th of the produced.

• Vartani Tax is a tax on traders(Road tax)

• Gulma Tax- military tax

• Hiranya Tax - tax on Forests Products

• Nishkanya Tax- Tax on exports

Architecture in Mauryan empire

• Pots- Northern black Polished Ware (NBPW)

• Palaces- Ashoka built Kumrahar Palace, 80 pillared halls and found wood sculptures inspired from Persepolis achaemenid pillars from Iran.

• Stupas found in Sanchi(MP) , Pipliwala(UP), Jaggayyapeta(Bhattiprolu), shalihunda(AP), and Amaravathi, are all these stupas described as Daathigarbhitas Stupas.

• These are all sacred places of buddhism

• A tibetan text called Divyavadana says that ashoka constructed 84000 stupas(conflict in reality)

• Yaksha and Yakshi Sculptures , mother goddess(semi nudes, long drapery touching the the floor)

• Salabhanjika sculptures

• Mauryans built caves like Barrabarra built by Ashoka, and Nagarjuni caves by Dasarath

• Built Lomarishi Caves (Jain Caves)

• Ashoka built Dhowli rock cut cave orissa, has Elephant Sculpture entrance

• Ashoka Pillars are the masterpieces in the history of India , one can find them in the highways and they are Monolithic Pillars

Sarnath Pillar:

• Lion Capital- has 4 lions as emblem

• Horse, elephant, Bull, and Lion are sculpted beside the Spoked Wheel (UPSC question)

• On the bottom it has a pillar above it has an inverted Lotus on top of it it has an Abacus , on the abacus, a spoked wheel and around it 4 animals were carved and on top of the abacus we can find 4 lions facing through all directions.

Post Mauryans and Kingdoms and the age of Sangam

Post Mauryans and Kingdoms (200 BC-300 AD)

• Known as age of Interaction and Innovation

• One of the dark ages in Indian History

• No clarity in Kings who ruled in this period

• Complete Political Decentralization from Kashmir to Kanyakumari

• Society norms Violated (inter caste marriage was common called as Varnasankara)

• Foreigner first time ruled India (small Tribes from Central Asia)

• Generally Economy is very Rich post Mauryan because Guilds are very active and entered many countries for trades

• Architecture was highly flourished because of interaction with foreign people for example arts of Gandhara, Mathura and Amaravathi

Untouchables according to Brahmanical views

1. Mlecchas( Father- foreigner, mother- Indian)

2. Aprachya( father- indian, mother- foreigner)

Foreign Kingdoms(Indo-Greeks)

1. Indo-Greeks- ruled N-W India

• some rulers are Demetrius and Minender/Milinda

• they patronized Buddhism

2. SAKA/Scythians (Central Asia)

• Total 5 branches, 4 branches settled at saurashtra and 5th branch settled at Ujjain

• Sakas patronized Brahmanism

3. Kushans or Yuchies or Tocharians

4. Parthians

Post Mauryan biggest Kingdom emerged was Satavahanas who almost ruled for 400 Years and they ruled the complete deccan region and chedi kingdom ruled Orissa and complete south was ruled Sangam kings also called as age of Sangam

During this period Brahmanism was Rapidly rising while Other religion like Buddhism and Jainism getting unpopular because Kings of satavahana mainly patronized the Sanatan dharma and also giving equally respect for Buddhism

Indo-Greeks

Indo-Greek’s capital was at Bactria, they minted Pure gold, on the front side we see the king’s image and on the back side we see the name of the Kings who minted.

Now the first person who minted coins is Minander/Milinda, Nagasena converted Minander into Buddhism and changed his name to Milinda, there’s also a book on Nagasena and Milinda called Milindapanho which is written in Pali language.

Milinda is the first person to start a art system called Gandhara-art relating to sculptures and paintings of Buddhism, Kushans also encouraged Gandhara-art

Sakas

• They ruled Gujarat and central Madhya Pradesh

• Most important ruler in Sakas is Nahapana(Ujjain Branch)

• Another powerful king is Rudradaman(Ujjain Branch)

• Rudradaman took revenge on satavahana king by defeating Sivasri Satakarni, as a punishment for Sivasri Satakarni , Rudradaman gave his Daughter Rudradamanica to Sivasri satakarni and made Illarikam(in telugu, it means Bridegroom must stay at father in laws house after marriage)

• All these mentioned in Junagadh Inscriptions, the first sanskrit inscription in India

• Rudradaman repaired Sudarshan lake

• Last ruler in saka kingdom Basa , defeated by Chandragupta 2

• They captured one silk route (Ujjain-Kanyakumari), that’s why they were able to 300 years and became rich

Kushans:

• They were called as Yuchies and they are central asian tribes

• They were regarded as biggest looters and captured entire silk routes and collected taxes

• They were called as Devaputra or Kaisers(chinese titles)

• Kushans patronized Great art, one is Mathura and other one is Gandhara

1. Kujalakada Physis-devaputra son of god

2. Wimakada physis, devotee of shiva(coins , trident and bull)

3. Kanishka(78 AD-120 AD), is the greatest kings in Kushan Dynasty

4. Kanishka have 2 capital, one is Purushapura and other one in Mathura

5. Because Kushans blocking the Silk route, Chinese found other Route to sell the goods to Europeans, Chinese first they entered Burma, then Bengal( Tamralipti), then our guilds pass through Ujjain, then pass through deccan and from deccan, they use Sea Route, this is how Indian guilds became very rich by collected Taxes

Parthians:

• Also called as Pahlavas (not Pallavas)

• Came from Central Asia

• Important ruler was Gondopharnes

• He is a student of ST Thomas who came to India to spread Cristianity

Indian Kings

1. Shungas

• Pushyamitra Shunga , he is a Brahmin and performed Aswamedha Yagam , but miserably failed

• Pataliputra is his capital

• Agnimitra is another ruler and he is protagonist in the drama called Malavikagnimitra wrote by Kalidasa

• Heliodorus a greek ambassador came to indian and became a devotee of Lord Krishna found in Besnagar Pillar

2. Kanva rulers

• Susharma, one of ruler, not enough historical evidence found about him

Age of Sangam

• Generally Sage Agastya is considered as the first north Indian Sage to enter into south and introduce Brahmanical culture in south India by crossing Vindhya mountains

• Agastya brought Varna system in the southern India

• Total 3 sangams were held at Madurai City between writers, and high priests and Agastya became the president

• 1st sangam- called Thalai sangam, was burnt by some kings so no evidence was found

• 2nd sangam- called Idai Sangam, main themes of second sangam were wars between cheras(kerala), pandyas(south TN) and cholas(north TN), Love,Romance and Polity.

• the most important book is Tolkappiyam written by Tolkapyar, it’s about Grammar, polity, social life, Human psychology, it has 3 section and and 9 chapters

• 3rd sangam- called Kadai sangam, President Nakkirar, Pattupattu, Ettukotai, Pannerupadhalan, was written by Nakkirar and they were all collections of anthologists

• Tiruvalluvar wrote tirrukul

• 3 Epics

1. Silappadikaram written by Ilango Adigal, story of Kannigal

2. Manimekalai written by satalaisatanar, a sequel to Silappadikaram

3. Sivagasindaman written by Tiruttokadevar

Note : ancient Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas are not important for exam point of you but Medieval period Cholas are very Important.

Trade and commerce during Sangam:

• Periplus of Erythrian sea discusses about the ports of South India namely Masuli,Arikamedu,Tamralipti,Baruchha (Guj), Tondi and Helsinda,Poduki and Karaikal in Puducherry

Hope you find the article helpful

Trade and commerce after the mauryan Empire

Why did such huge trade appear between India and Rome?

• Major reason was the diversion of silk route as it passed from India

• Sea route → deccan/south → Arabian Sea → Red Sea →Mediterranean Sea → Egypt (alexandria port) → Europe(Italy)

• Roman emperor Augustus and his commander - Mark Antony invaded Egypt and won the battle and later married the Queen Cleopatra

• At that time Egypt was full of Arabs(NOT Muslims) and they are Sea lovers at the same time Roman merchant called HIPPALUS learned the knowledge of sea routes from Arabs

• Directional of Seasonal Winds(monsoons) discovered by Hippalaus which helped traders to back and forth from India and Europe

Note: in Tamil Nadu Muzuris village, there’s a temple of Augustus Built by Romans

In Amaravati there’s a separate colony of romans

• Technology developed for building highways and ringwells, so guilds became more active.

Imports and Exports:

India is the hub of Natural Resources and became the master of Exports and has favorable balance of trade, or a trade surplus

Religion During the Sangam Period or post Mauryan Period?

• Murugan was heavily celebrated in southern India and also for forest tribes

• Krishna cult became more popular (Bhagavatism), even greeks adopted bhagavatism

• Bhagavatism emphasis on the Bhakthi for the path to salvation not rituals

Arts and Architecture:

1. Sanchi school of arts(MP)

2. Bharhut school of arts(Bihar)

3. Gandhara School of arts(Taxila)

4. Mathura school of arts

• In sanchi stupa, ashoka just added Vedika( circular shape called Anda) , but later Shungas added Toranas and Chatris, chatris indicate (Buddham , Dhamman and Sangam), Railings, and Harmika

• Shungas replaced wood part with stone crafts

• In Bharhut stupa we find sculpture of Yaksha and Yakshi

Gandhara School of Arts

• Capital was Taxila and patronized by milinda and Kushans(Kanishka)

• Flourished from 1st century AD to 5th Century AD

• Here buddha looks like greek God Apollo and made with lime stones, clay , plasture and sometimes wood

• It’s also called Hellinistic art, was mainly influenced by greeks

• BUDDHA LOOKS LIKE CURLY HAIRED

Mathura School of arts

• Native art for kushans

• Buddha sculptures appear in enlightenment form and half closed eyes

• Torso of Kanishka can be seen with long boots, sword , sheath , kurta,and Pajama also called headless kanishka

Important events after the Death the Buddha

Events After the Death of Gautama Buddha!

4 Principles came into existence or 4 Buddhist council happened

1st Buddhist council- 483BC

place-Rajagriha- president Mahakashyapa

King- Ajatashatru(patronized)

→ first-time Buddhist Teachings got documented

Anada wrote suttapitaka

Upali wrote Vinayapitaka

Buddhist teachings called Tripitakas

1. suttapitaka

2. Vinayapittaka

3. Abhidhamma Pitaka(composed in 3rd Buddhist council)

2nd Buddhist Council - 383 BC

Place -vyshali(bihar)

President- Sabakami

King -Kalashoka

2 groups emerged(Teravadas(no change) and Mahasangikas(those who want change))

Teravadas are the oldest form of Buddhism

3rd Buddhist council-250BC

Place- Pataliputra

President- Mogaliputtatissa

King- Ashoka

King Ashoka made the Buddhism an International religion

He sent his son and daughter(Mahendra and Sanghamitra) to Srilanka to preach Buddhism

He sent Maharakshita to Greece to preach Buddhism.

Abhidhamma Pitaka(deals with Meta Physics) Written in 3rd Buddhist council

4th Buddhist council-100AD

place-Kundalavana Kashmir

President- Asvaghosha, and Vasumitthra

King- Kanishka(Greatest ruler in north India)

There are 36 splits in this council and the most important of them were Hinayana and Mahayana

Splits in Buddhism

Hinayana Buddhism(lesser Vehicle)-yanam means the vehicle

• One of the original Buddhism Teachings

• They believe Buddha is just an enlightened Being not God

• Buddha used to say he is not god and never construct Idols

• They follow Ashtanga Marga for salvation

• Popularly spreads to Srilanka and other south east Asian countries

• Wrote only in the Pali language

Important Pali text- Milindapanho

Mahayana Buddhism(Greater Vehicle)

• Became more popular and Pro chargers

• Adopted Sanskrit Language and became popular in the 1st Century

• Brahmanic became more powerful that’s why sanskrit was adopted and Pali was getting old and rare

• They believe Buddha is a God

• A major reason for the downfall of Buddha as people celebrated buddha as God and Installed Idols and stupas

• They believed Bodhisattva will give the salvation to all

[Bodhisattvas are nothing but Reincarnations of Buddha and the future birth of buddha is called Maitreyas]- UPSC Question 2020

Examples of bodhisattvas- Avalokiteshvara, Vajrapani, Ratnasambhava, Amitabha, Padmapani

All the Stories of Buddhism can be found in Jatakas

Vajrayana Buddhism-4th century AD (Diamond vehicle)

(copycat of Hindusim)

• Tantric Buddhism(magical powers, sorceries practices)

• Kalachakrayana Buddhism(Black Magics, Rituals, worshipped Taras(wives of Buddha)

• Sahajayana Buddhism(believed in sexual intercourse between Bikshus and bikshinis, believed in Pleasure)

• All Buddhist sanghas in Sahajayana Buddhism turned into clubs and have gained all the vices and the major reason for the downfall of Buddhism

Buddhist Architectures

On toranas

Sculptures of Salabanjikas(apsarasas who are holding branches of tree)

Yakshas sculptures

Chaityas -prayers hall

Viharas- Resting halls of bikshus and bikshinis

SanchiStupa-MP

Pipliwaha stupa-UP

Amaravati- AP

{Jaggayyapeta

Bhattiprolu

Shalihunda}- AP

Theragatha- stories of Bikshus

Therigatha -stories of Bikshinis

Decline of Buddhism

• Mahayana buddhism changed Buddhist paths

• Buddhism competed with Brahmanism and lost its identity

• Superstition beliefs in ‘Buddhism(Kalachakra and Sahajayana)

• No King after 1st century AD patronised Buddhism

• Final death blow was given by Adishankaracharya (proved no difference between Brahmanism and Buddhism)

These are all internal reasons for the decline of Buddhism and External reason was Islamic Invasion(example Bakhtiyar khilji)

The Dynamic Evolution of Language: Unraveling the Rate of Word Increase

Language, as a dynamic and living entity, undergoes constant evolution, with words being the building blocks that shape our communication. In this era of rapid technological advancement and ever-expanding knowledge, the rate at which words are introduced into languages is a fascinating aspect of linguistic evolution.

The Acceleration of Vocabulary Growth

Languages are not stagnant; they adapt to the changing needs of society, reflecting advancements in science, technology, culture, and more. Tracking the rate of word increase in any language is a challenging yet essential endeavor. Researchers have delved into this phenomenon, and findings suggest that the pace of vocabulary growth is accelerating.

One notable observation is in the English language. The Global Language Monitor estimates that a new English word emerges roughly every 98 minutes. This constant influx of new terms demonstrates the language’s responsiveness to the rapidly evolving world.

How Words Make Their Entry

The introduction of new words into a language is a multifaceted process influenced by various factors. Here are some key avenues through which words find their way into our lexicon:

1. Technological Advancements:

   • With each technological breakthrough, there comes a need for language to adapt. New inventions, concepts, and technologies often necessitate the creation of corresponding terminology. For instance, terms like “selfie,” “emoji,” and “app” have become commonplace with the rise of smartphones and digital culture.

2. Scientific Discoveries:

   • The world of science constantly unveils new phenomena and breakthroughs, demanding the introduction of specific vocabulary. Fields such as genetics, space exploration, and artificial intelligence contribute a plethora of terms that enrich the scientific lexicon.

3. Cultural and Social Shifts:

   • Language is deeply intertwined with culture and society. Changes in societal norms, cultural practices, and emerging trends bring about the need for words that accurately convey these shifts. Slang, colloquialisms, and neologisms often arise from these cultural transformations.

Pioneering Researchers in Linguistic Evolution

Several scholars and researchers have dedicated their work to understanding the dynamics of language evolution and the rate of word increase. Among them, the following stand out for their contributions:

1. David Crystal:

   • A renowned linguist, David Crystal has extensively studied language evolution and written extensively on the subject. His work delves into the intricate relationship between language and society, shedding light on how languages adapt to societal changes.

2. Desmond Morris:

   • An ethologist and author, Desmond Morris has explored the role of language in human communication. His research highlights the interplay between language development and cultural evolution, emphasizing the adaptability of language to diverse environments.

3. Susan Ervin-Tripp:

   • Susan Ervin-Tripp, a psychologist and linguist, has conducted influential research on language development, bilingualism, and the impact of cultural context on linguistic evolution. Her work provides valuable insights into how languages evolve in diverse cultural settings.

Impact on the World: Words as Cultural Markers

The constant introduction of new words has a profound impact on the world, influencing how we express ideas, communicate, and comprehend the complexities of our surroundings. Here are some key ways in which this linguistic evolution affects society:

1. Precision in Communication:

   • New words often arise to meet the need for more precise communication. They allow speakers to convey nuanced meanings, fostering a richer and more accurate exchange of ideas.

2. Cultural Reflection:

   • Words are cultural artifacts, reflecting the values, norms, and trends of a society. The introduction of new terms captures the evolving cultural landscape, providing linguistic snapshots of different eras.

3. Global Connectivity:

   • In our interconnected world, the exchange of ideas and information is constant. The introduction and adoption of new words facilitate global communication, enabling people from diverse linguistic backgrounds to engage in meaningful conversations.

The Future of Language Evolution

As we look ahead, the evolution of language is likely to continue at an accelerated pace. Several trends and factors point toward the future of linguistic development:

1. Technology’s Role:

   • With ongoing technological advancements, the integration of artificial intelligence, virtual reality, and other emerging technologies will likely introduce a host of new terms. The intersection of technology and language will shape how we describe and understand the world around us.

2. Cultural Hybridization:

   • Increased globalization and cultural exchange may lead to the blending of languages, giving rise to hybrid terms that reflect the interconnected nature of our world. This linguistic fusion could result in a more interconnected and universally understood lexicon.

3. Social Media Influence:

   • The prevalence of social media platforms as hubs of communication is reshaping language in real-time. The brevity of messages, the rise of emojis, and the creation of internet-specific slang contribute to the continual evolution of digital language.

In conclusion, the rate of word increase in languages is a testament to the adaptability and resilience of human communication. As we navigate the complexities of the modern world, language serves as both a mirror and a tool, reflecting our cultural identity while enabling us to express and comprehend the ever-expanding scope of human knowledge. Embracing this linguistic evolution is not just a linguistic necessity but a celebration of the dynamic nature of human expression.

Astronomers Discover Most Luminous Black Hole Ever

Astronomers Discover Most Luminous Black Hole Ever

A groundbreaking study published in Nature Astronomy unveils the most luminous object ever observed by astronomers – a black hole with a mass equivalent to 17 billion Suns. Astonishingly, this cosmic giant devours a mass greater than our Sun every single day.

Meet J0529-4351

This extraordinary black hole, named J0529-4351, was initially thought to be a nearby star due to its brightness. Recent observations, however, revealed its extreme distance and luminosity. J0529-4351 belongs to a class of objects known as quasars.

Quasars are supermassive black holes situated at the centers of galaxies, powered by the infall of super-heated hydrogen and helium gas. In the case of J0529-4351, approximately one solar mass is plunging into the black hole daily.

Quasars: The Universe’s Energetic Giants

Quasars, discovered in 1963 with the identification of 3C 273, are the most actively growing black holes in the universe. Their extreme luminosity is fueled by material falling into the central black hole. The gas forms a thin disk at the galaxy’s center, heating up to tens of thousands of degrees Celsius and emitting light visible from Earth.

Although J0529-4351 is not the most massive black hole known (a record held by one at the center of the galaxy cluster Abell 1201), its luminosity sets it apart. It challenges our understanding of how so much gas can be channeled into the center of galaxies to fuel black hole growth.

Discovery and Challenges

Despite being known for decades, J0529-4351 appeared as a single point of light in telescopes due to its extreme distance. Advanced techniques, including infrared observations and spectroscopy, confirmed its identity and positioned it an astounding 12 billion light years away.

Several checks were conducted to validate its true luminosity. Data from the Gaia satellite and detailed spectra from the Very Large Telescope facility in Chile confirmed that J0529-4351 is a singular, non-lensed source of light in the sky.

Significance and Future Studies

J0529-4351 is poised to become a vital tool for studying quasars and black hole growth. Measuring black hole mass is a complex task, but J0529-4351, being both physically large and exceptionally luminous, will be observed by the new Gravity+ instrument on the Very Large Telescope. This instrument will provide a direct measurement of the black hole mass, contributing to our understanding of these enigmatic cosmic entities.

Stay tuned for more discoveries as astronomers delve deeper into the mysteries of the universe!

Gravitational Lensing: Unveiling the Mysteries of Space

Introduction

Gravitational lensing is a fascinating phenomenon predicted by Albert Einstein’s theory of General Relativity. This cosmic occurrence occurs when the gravitational field of a massive object, such as a galaxy or a cluster of galaxies, bends and distorts the light coming from a more distant object, like a star or another galaxy.

The Gravitational Lens Effect

Imagine space as a vast fabric, and massive objects like stars and galaxies as weights placed on this fabric. These objects create a dimple in the fabric, causing light to follow a curved path around them. This curvature of light is what we observe as gravitational lensing.

Types of Gravitational Lensing

1. Strong Lensing:

• Description: In strong lensing, the bending of light is so significant that it creates multiple, distorted images of the background object.
• Example: Einstein’s Cross, where a single quasar is observed as four separate images.

2. Weak Lensing:

• Description: Weak lensing results in a subtle distortion of the background object without multiple images.
• Applications: Studying large-scale structures of the universe, like dark matter distribution.

3. Micro Lensing:

• Description: Micro lensing occurs when a compact object, like a star, passes in front of a background star, causing a temporary brightening.
• Observations: Used to detect planets around distant stars, a technique known as gravitational microlensing.

Real-world Applications

1. Cosmology:

• Gravitational lensing provides insights into the distribution of matter in the universe, aiding our understanding of dark matter and dark energy.

2. Exoplanet Detection:

• Micro lensing can be employed to discover exoplanets by observing the temporary increase in brightness as a planet passes in front of a distant star.

3. Galactic Studies:

• Studying strongly lensed images of galaxies helps astronomers investigate the properties and structures of these distant celestial bodies.

Conclusion

Gravitational lensing serves as a powerful tool for astronomers, unveiling hidden aspects of our vast universe. From exploring the mysteries of dark matter to detecting distant exoplanets, this phenomenon continues to contribute significantly to our understanding of the cosmos.

Quasars

Introduction

Quasars, short for “quasi-stellar radio sources,” stand as celestial marvels, captivating the imagination of astronomers and astrophysicists alike. These cosmic powerhouses, fueled by supermassive black holes, exhibit extraordinary brightness, often surpassing the luminosity of entire galaxies. In this exploration, we delve into the captivating world of quasars, uncovering their origin, characteristics, and the invaluable insights they provide into the cosmos.

Understanding Quasars

1. Origins of Quasars:

Quasars are thought to derive their luminosity from the gravitational energy released as matter falls into supermassive black holes at the cores of distant galaxies. These black holes, with masses millions to billions of times that of our Sun, create environments of extreme gravitational forces and temperatures, leading to the energetic emissions characteristic of quasars.

2. Distinctive Characteristics:

2.1 Extreme Brightness:

Quasars are unparalleled in their luminosity, emitting thousands of times more energy than an entire galaxy. The intense brightness allows astronomers to detect quasars across vast cosmic distances, making them essential probes for studying the early universe.

2.2 Redshift:

Most quasars exhibit redshift in their spectra, a phenomenon attributed to the expansion of the universe. By analyzing this redshift, scientists can infer the quasar’s distance and gain insights into the large-scale structure and evolution of the cosmos.

2.3 Compact Size:

Despite their incredible luminosity, quasars are relatively compact. Some are even smaller than our solar system, yet they outshine galaxies that are significantly larger. The compact size of quasars adds to the intrigue, challenging our understanding of how such intense luminosity is concentrated in a confined space.

Probing the Cosmos with Quasars

1. Cosmic Time Capsules:

Quasars provide a unique opportunity to peer into the past. Because of their immense distances from Earth, many quasars observed today existed billions of years ago. Studying these ancient cosmic beacons allows scientists to explore the conditions of the early universe, offering a glimpse into its formative stages.

2. Galaxy Formation and Evolution:

The connection between quasars and the galaxies in which they reside unveils critical insights into galaxy formation and evolution. The energy released by quasars influences the surrounding interstellar medium, impacting star formation processes and shaping the galactic landscape.

3. Black Hole Dynamics:

Quasars serve as natural laboratories for studying supermassive black holes. The accretion of matter onto these black holes generates the intense radiation observed in quasars. By examining the properties of quasars, scientists can deepen their understanding of the dynamics and behavior of supermassive black holes, which play a pivotal role in the evolution of galaxies.

Technological Advancements and Quasar Discoveries

1. Advanced Observational Techniques:

Technological advancements in telescopes and observational techniques have revolutionized our ability to study quasars. The Hubble Space Telescope, ground-based observatories, and radio telescopes provide a comprehensive view of quasars across the electromagnetic spectrum, enabling detailed analyses of their properties.

2. Surprising Variability:

Ongoing observations have revealed that quasars are not static entities. They exhibit variability in their brightness over time scales ranging from days to years. This variability challenges existing models and prompts scientists to refine their understanding of the processes occurring near supermassive black holes.

Future Prospects: Charting the Unknown

As technology continues to advance, the study of quasars promises exciting discoveries. Future telescopes, such as the James Webb Space Telescope, will enable researchers to observe even more distant and faint quasars, pushing the boundaries of our observational capabilities and enhancing our understanding of these cosmic enigmas.

Conclusion: Unveiling the Universe, One Quasar at a Time

Quasars stand as cosmic beacons, illuminating the mysteries of the universe. From their origins in the hearts of distant galaxies to their role in shaping cosmic landscapes, these enigmatic entities continue to captivate scientists and enthusiasts alike. As we journey deeper into the cosmos, guided by the luminosity of quasars, we uncover the secrets of the universe’s past, present, and future.

Embark on the cosmic odyssey with quasars – where the extraordinary meets the unknown, and the universe reveals its deepest secrets.

Discover. Explore. Illuminate.

Unraveling the Quantum Gravity Mystery: A Breakthrough in Microscopic Gravity Measurement

In the quest to understand the fundamental forces governing the universe, scientists have taken a significant leap forward. A team of physicists at the University of Southampton, in collaboration with researchers across Europe, has achieved a groundbreaking experiment that could potentially unlock the secrets of quantum gravity, a phenomenon that has perplexed scientists for decades.

The Quantum Gravity Conundrum

Quantum mechanics, the theory governing the microscopic realm, and gravity, as described by Isaac Newton and later refined by Einstein’s general relativity, have long been two seemingly incompatible aspects of the physical world. Einstein himself expressed the difficulty of envisioning a quantum version of gravity, stating that there seemed to be no realistic experiment to demonstrate it.

The Breakthrough Experiment

Published in Science Advances, the experiment employed a novel technique using levitating magnets to detect the gravitational pull on microscopic particles—pushing the boundaries of our understanding to the quantum scale. Lead author Tim Fuchs emphasized the significance of successfully measuring gravitational signals at the smallest mass ever recorded, bringing scientists one step closer to unraveling the intricate relationship between gravity and quantum mechanics.

Scaling Down to the Quantum Realm

The experiment opens up possibilities for further exploration into the quantum world. Fuchs explained, “From here, we will start scaling the source down using this technique until we reach the quantum world on both sides.” The goal is to delve into the mysteries of the universe, addressing questions such as the origins of the cosmos, the inner workings of black holes, and the integration of all fundamental forces into a unified theory.

The Experimental Setup

The sophisticated setup involved superconducting devices known as traps, magnetic fields, sensitive detectors, and advanced vibration isolation. The researchers measured a weak gravitational pull of just 30 attonewtons (30aN) on a tiny particle with a mass of 0.43 milligrams. The particle was levitated in freezing temperatures, a hundredth of a degree above absolute zero (approximately –273 degrees Celsius).

Future Prospects

Professor of Physics Hendrik Ulbricht, also at the University of Southampton, sees this breakthrough as pushing the boundaries of science, paving the way for future experiments with even smaller objects and forces. The hope is that their new technique, utilizing extremely cold temperatures and vibration isolation, will prove instrumental in measuring quantum gravity.

Unlocking the Secrets of the Universe

As we unravel the mysteries of quantum gravity, we inch closer to understanding the fabric of the universe—from the smallest particles to the grandest cosmic structures. This breakthrough not only represents a triumph in experimental physics but also signifies a promising step toward a more comprehensive and unified understanding of the forces shaping our reality.

Stay tuned as scientists continue to push the frontiers of knowledge, with each experiment bringing us closer to a quantum gravity theory that could reshape our understanding of the cosmos.

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